_ 145 _ The important work by V.Magalhães Godinho, Os Descobrimentos e a economia mundial, Lisbon 1962, 2 vols. remains the indispensable basis of any study of production, exchange and finance. P.Chaunu has used the facts it provides to produce a lucid but limited synthesis in Conquete et exploitation des nouveaux mondes, XVIe slècie, Paris 1969, 313-323. These two works, which do not discuss local merchant companies, have been somewhat overtaken by more recent studies and by work based on oriental sources such as Marchands et hommes d'affaires asiatiques dans l'Ocean Indien et la Mer de Chine, 130-20e siècles, ed. Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, Paris 1988. For maritime routes and Middle Eastern trade see G.R.Tibbetts, Arab navigation in the Indian Ocean before the coming of the Portuguese, being a translation of Kitab al-Fawa'id fi usul al-bahr wa'Iquwa'id of Ahmad B. Majid al-Najdi, London 1971; W.Fischel, 'The spice trade of Mamluk Egypt in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1, (1958); M.S.Labib, Les merchands Karimis en Orient et sur l'Ocean Indien, Paris 1970, 209-214; J.Aubin, 'Le royaume d'Ormuz au debut du XVIe siècle' in Mare Luso-indicum 3 (1973), 77-129; R.B.Ser jeant, Studies in Arabian History and Civilisation, London 1981: E.Ashtor, Studies in the Levantine trade in the Middle Ages, London 1978.
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