Palmyrene is one of the towns that were acting as a broker between China and the Mediterranean Sea for transport of spices and silk, which had a great importance then. Hence, this road was called "Silk Road".
With regard to the trade route coming across Silk Road, trade reaches "Dura-Europos" – " currently Salhiya" near "Mayadin' on the Euphrates River in Eastern Syria, and then it transported to Petra through Palmyrene.
In the second century, the trade has rebounded due to increase of navigation in the Indian Ocean, after the sailor learned how to benefit from the Trade winds that were blowing from the northeast and the southeast to the equator. In addition, in 100 AD, the Silk Road coming from Chine and passing through Afghanistan was closed due to occupation Kushan, located in the North of "Mashhad- currently". Thus, the maritime route across the bay became an important route for trade.
The Romans occupied Syria and Western Iraq along the Euphrates River, in the period ranging between113 AD to 117 AD. The Roman established a road connecting the occupied areas in Iraq with Palmyrene and Damascus.
After the emperor "Marcus Aurelius" occupied "Mayadin", which is 25 km from Baghdad, currently, the Trade Center in Iraq was moved to Al Sharish near "Al-Qurnah" at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the North of Shatt al-Arab. The ships coming from the Gulf reach this Trade Center through crossing Shatt al-Arab.
Following the suspension of trade via Silk Road, the trade moved to the Indus River Plains to reach Oman Sea from the mouth of Indus River. Some monuments attributed to Palmyrene were found at that port. Thus, the trade was transported via the maritime route from the mouth of Indus River via the gulf, and then Shatt al-Arab, up to "Al Sharish" near "Al-Qurnah" above Shatt al-Arab to Palmyrene. The maritime route from the mouth of Indus River to Shatt al-Arab was full of dangers, as the North Bank of the Gulf to Shatt al-Arab was under control of Persian Empire. In addition, due to the continuing wars between the Persians and Romans, it was impossible for the ships of commercial goods to stop at any port as the North Bank of the Gulf to obtain water and firewood for fuel. Due to the long distance between the month of Indus River and Shatt al-Arab which is about 5,600 km, a place located in the middle of such distance and far enough from the Persians was chosen to be the ideal place for establishment of a Trade Center affiliated to Palmyrene and located on mountains so that the enemies cannot reach it. This place is Ras Al Khaimah. "Palace of Zaba" or "Palace of Zenobia" was established later on that place when Zenobia took over the reins.
There is a question coming to mind: Did the trade was suspended via Silk Road after being closed by Kushan?
Answer: The trade was suspended from Kushan town along the way to Syria, but some stone inscriptions attributed to people of Palmyrene were found at city of "Merw" at Turkmenistan located before Kushan town. This explains the way the trade route coming from Kerman to the Gulf via Gambron port which is called later "Bandar Abbas".
For the direct connection between Kerman and China, the mulberry was grown in Chine to feed pupa of the silkworm, which was forbidden to get out from China. Then, how did pupas reach Kerman?
The trader of Kerman went with their women to Chine. The women were braiding their hair and put the pupas inside the hair. By this mean, the traders managed to bread silkworm to produce silk.
Kerman became a center for production of silk, which had the greatest impact in the presence of British colonialism in the Gulf, which explanation takes a long time.
After I read the documents related to Augustus and Byzantine History, including but not limited to:
1- The Biography of Zenobia in the Augustus History "Life of Thirty Claimers" (Book in 320 AD).
2- Story of Zenobia, according to Byzantine Historian "Zosimos" "History" Vatican manuscript, pages Nos. (121- 131). Zosimos had lived in 500 AD "Translated from Greek".
3- History of Byzantine Historian "Zosimos", (The twelfth century, translated from Greek) includes story of Zenobia, queen of Palmyrene.
I was surprised to read what the Arabs wrote about queen of Palmyrene. The Arabs called her "Zaba", which is a name that the Arab called to the women with long hair. The Arabs called her "Zaba bint Amr ibn Alzerb" or "Zaba bint Al-Rayyan Ghassani", king of Al-Hadar in the South of Mosul.
The second story might have confirmed that Zaba is the queen of Palmyrene, as follows:
"Qaseir mutilated his nose for specific purpose": it is a saying referring to who uses tricks to achieve his goal. This saying was said by Zaba when she saw " Qaseir " with mutilated nose. Jusaima al - Abrash killed Zaba's father "Al-Rayyan Ghassani", king of Al-Hadar, and expelled Zaba. Later, Zaba went to the Levant, accompanied the Romans, mobilized a number of men, spent money, returned to the kingdom of his father and killed Jusaima.
Jusaima had a minister called "Qaseir", who made a trick to kill Zaba. He mutilated his nose and harmed himself and went to Zaba alleging that "Amr", Jusaima's nephew, had done all this. He asked Zaba to protect him.
Jusaiman was so kind with Zaba and earned a lot of money, so Zaba trusted him. He knew all secrets of Zaba palace and put some men of "Amr" in sacks and put weapons above them. He put the sacks on the camels as being a caravan and entered city of Zaba. The men surrounded palace of Zaba and then she understood his trick and said such saying.
The truth lies in the "Augustus History" about "Life of Thirty Claimers" that was written in 320 AD, i.e., after 46 years from brining Zenobia to Roma, as she was brought to Roma in 274 AD. The said document states that:
"Zenobia is attributed to the family of Cleopatra and Ptolemy, one of the kings of Egypt"
Another saying, "Zenobia is attributed to the family of Cleopatra and the Royal Family in Carthage from the dynasty of Didon"
(1)
Zenobia Queen of Palmyrene
In 129 AD, the Roman Emperor "Hadrianus" visited Palmyra and granted it the title "The First City".
In 200 AD, Palmyra became a main city along the routes of spices and silk.
Palmyra had developed within 12 years and became a Roman city exercising all the rights.
In 258 AD, "Udhayna", the leader of the notables in Palmyra, had taken over the reins at Syria by Emperor " Valerianus".
In 262 AD, Udhayna attacked "Shabur", the king of Persia, and managed to take over Al-Mada'in and Nusaybin, on the northern Syrian border, that was taken over previously by Shabur. Udhayna did not only take over Nusaybin, but he damaged it also at the same time.
When the Roman Emperor " Gallienus" knew the victory of "Udhayna" over "Shabur", he gave him the title of "Duke", such as the Roamns. Also he appointed him as an Emperor over the whole East, and thus, he took over the reins at an independent emirate.
Udhayna got married with Zenobia, who was proud to be attributed to Cleopatra and Ptolemy family, one of Egypt's rulers.
Zenobia got married only to have children. She copulated with her husband for one time only, and she was waiting for the time of menstruation to know if she is pregnant or not. If she is not pregnant, she gives him another chance. She gave birth to a boy and called him "Wahb Allat".
When the Persians occupied "Al-Mada'in" on the Tigris River, Udhayna went there and ordered Zenobia to rule Palmyra on his behalf. He occupied "Al-Mada'in" and returned to Palmyra.
During the period ranging between the year 267 AD and 268 AD, there was a great revolution in the Roman Empire against Anatolia (Anatolia currently), As a result, Anatolia was occupied by the Germanic tribe "Goths". Udhayna and his son "Harran" their strong army and marched to Anatolia to expel the Goths, after ordered Zenobia to rule Palmyra on his behalf. But Udhayna and his son "Harran" were killed by one of their relatives. The people said that Zenobia is responsible for killing her husband and his son, because she wanted her son "Wahb Allat" to take over the reins of Palmyra.
Zenobia became the guardian of her son "Wahb Allat" and made him the King of Palmyra. There were a number of secessionist movements against the Emperor "Gallienus", who was killed in 268 AD. The Romanian Armed Forces was establishing a camp outside Milan, so they elected "Claudius Gothicus", the Roman leader, as the Emperor.
During the period ranging between the year 268 AD and 270 AD, his period of rule was short and he was defeated at the battle with the German tribes.
Zenobia took advantage of the war between the Roamns and the Germans and occupied Egypt in 269 AD. In the summer of the year 270 AD, Zenobia occupied the Arabian Peninsula. Hence, the palace of Zenobia was ceryaily established in Zenobia at that period.
The relationship between the separate kingdom of Palmyra and the Emperor "Claudius" had deteriorated. Claudius died affected by smallpox. Aurelian was appointed as the Emperor. Zenobia usurped the power in Palmyra and minted coins in the name and image of her son "Wahb Allat" and called him Emperor "Augustus". In 271 AD, she minted coins in her name and her image and called herself the Empress "August".
Zenobia was worshiped like the Persians and was preparing banquet like monarchs of Persia, but her appearance before the public was like the Roman Emperor. She wears helmet, collar, and purple turban with jewels. The turban is bonded by a jewel called "Kokles" used instead of brooch that the women ware. She frequently wares clothes with naked arms. Her face was black and her eyes were black more than usual, she was very beautiful. Her teeth were very white tooth to the extent that some people think that she has pearls not tooth. Her voice was string like men. Her cruelty was like that of Tyrant. Her mercy was like that of the good emperor. She is reasonably generous, as she preserved her treasure more than other women. She used the cart but she was riding horse frequently. Also, she was walking with the infantry soldiers for three or four miles. She drank wine for many times with Generals, although she refused to do so at other times. Also she drunk wine with the Persians and Armenians to only extract information from them. She used golden jeweled utensils in preparing banquets; even she used utensils of Cleopatra. She appointed the eunuch old people and a few number of maiden. She ordered her children to speak Latin, but they actually spoke Greek. She was not speaking Latin fluently; however, she was speaking without being shy. On the other hand, she spoke the Egyptian Arabic well. According to the history of Alexandria and the East, she was fluent in the Egyptian Arabic to the extent that she wrote a summary about it. However, she read the Roman history in Greek.
Aurelian did not accept such acts, so he lead the army in personal and marched to Palmyra to control it, while the Roman leader "Probus" marched to Egypt to make it under control of the Roman Empire.
(2)
Destroying the kingdom of Palmyra
The Emperor "Aurelian" ordered the army to march to Palmyra to break into it; perhaps he could put an end to his troubles. The Syrian bandits attacked the army of Aurelian for many times.
When he reached Palmyra, he besieged it. He suffered many accidents, as he was shot with an arrow.
While Aurelian was besieging Palmyra, he wrote and sent a letter to Mucapor, one of his leaders. In this letter, he recognized the difficulty of this war, saying:
"The Romans say that I wage war against a woman, as if Zenobia is fighting me alone and with her own army. In fact, the power of the enemy is very strong, as if I am obligated to wage a war against a man. The fear and guilt that Zenobia feel made her a more depraved opponent. I cannot tell you how big the arrows are and how great its readiness for war is and how much ammo, lances and stones she has. There is no a part of the wall that does not contain two or three war machines. The machines can shoot fire.
She feels fear like a woman and fights like a person who fears punishment. I believe that Gods will help the Roman Army, as they will not let our efforts be in vain".
After the siege lasts for a long period, Aurelian sent a letter to Zenobia asking her to surrender and promising her to keep her alive.
The following is the letter:
"From Aurelian, Emperor of the Roman World, to Zenobia and those who owe her the alliance in the war. You should have done, with your own will, what I command you to do in this letter. I command you to surrender, and I promise I will keep you alive, provided that you, Zenobia, and your children have to stay in any place I select in accordance with the desires of the Senate.
You should deliver all your jewels, gold, silver, silk clothes, horses and camels to the Roman Treasury.
With regard to people of Palmyra, I will protect their rights".
Zenobia replied to this letter with pride exceeding and not commensurate with its wealth, in order to frighten him. She said:
"No one else has commanded me in a letter to do so, and all matters of war should be done with valor.
You commanded me to surrender, as if you do not know that Cleopatra preferred dying to live, whatever her dignity and position are. Now we are waiting for Persia support, and the Arab tribes as well as the Armenians are supporting us.
The Syrian bandits defeated you army, Aurelian. What would you say after your defeat?
If these forces, that we expect to come from everywhere, support us, you will put your arrogant way by which you command me to surrender aside, as if you win in all cases".
Nicomachus, Philosopher and professor, said that Zenobia has said this letter by herself, and he translated it from the Syrian dialect into Greek, and the previous letter of Aurelian was written in Greek.
Aurelian was not ashamed to receive this letter, but he was very nervous. So he gathers all his solders and leaders from everywhere and tightened the siege at Palmyra. This brave man gave a great attention to anything seem to be incomplete or disregarded. He hindered the reinforcements sent by Persia and manipulated the horsemen of the Arab tribes and the Armenians to obtain their support by coercive means, and others by deceit.
Finally, he managed beat this strong woman. Zenobia escaped riding the Arab camels. While she was trying to reach Persia, the horsemen managed to arrest her, and she was put under control of "Aurelian".
By this way, Aurelian won and took control over the whole East. After he arrested Zenobia with the Persians and the Armenians and the Arab tribes, he became more arrogant.
When he arrested Zenobia, he told her "How dare you talk arrogantly with the Roman emperors?"
According to some people, she said:" I know you are real emperor; you have made victories, but I did not consider Galen and Aurelius as emperors. I believe that Victoria is a woman like me, so I desired to be a partner in the Royal power, if lands are available."
At that time, all soldiers who asked to punish Zenobia had provoked unrest, but Aurelian thought that it is inappropriate to punish a woman by death. He killed a number of those who advised her to prepare for waging war and kept her alive as a celebration of victory.
Aurelian slew "Nicomachus" because he knew that he advised Zenobia to write her previous letter in an arrogant way, although the letter was mainly written in the Syrian dialect.
It is rare, but rather, it is a difficult thing for the Syrians to still have the same amount of faith. The people of Palmyra, who were defeated previously, started to express their insurgency, as Aurelian was occupied, at that time, with other things in Europe. They killed Sandario, who was assigned by Aurelian to lead the military garrison in Palmyra, and 600 Archers. By this way, they managed to take control over Palmyra, especially "Achilleus", one of the relatives of Zenobia. However, Aurelian was already ready. He returned from Europe and destroyed Palmyra, because it was worth it.
The people widely rumoured about the cruelty of Aurelian, as they cited a letter showing one of his most violent confessions.
The following is a letter sent by Aurelian to one of his leaders:
"From Aurelian to Cerronius Bassus, the soldiers should stop their work there. We have killed and slew a sufficient number of people of Palmyra. We have killed, women, children, Sheiks, and farmers. For whom should we leave the land or city at this condition?
We should forgive those who are still alive, as we think that punishment of a lot of people disciplines the few.
Margins
1- "Dedo" or "Elissa" is the sister of Pygmalion – King of Sour. In 825 BC, Carthage became a strong empire fighting Rome in the national wars between Rome and Carthage, but Rome win.
2- In 275 AD, "Mukabur" with a number of officers killed the Emperor "Aurelian".
Victory Festival puts an end to Zenobia
Aurelian, who took the control over the whole world by his victory against the East and Gaul and in all lands, marched to Rome to boast of his victory before Zenobia and Tetricus, the king of Gallic Empire who was defeated and captive, in addition to his victory against the East and West before the Romans.
It is not absurd to know how the victory festival that was made by Aurelian at the beginning of 274 AD looks like. The festival was amazing:
There were three royal light carts/ vehicles. The first was manufactured carefully and decorated with silver, gold and jewels. It was owned by Udhayna. The second was manufactured carefully too. It was granted by King of the Persians to Aurelian. The third was manufactured by Zenobia for herself, as she hoped to visit Rome by it.
This hope became true, as she has already went to Rome, but while she was defeated.
Also there was a fourth cart pulled by colts. Some people said that it was owned by the king of the Goths one day. This cart was ridden by Aurelian.
There were 20 elephants and 200 trained monsters of all kinds from Libya and Palestine.
Aurelian announced immediately to the people that the king's budget shall not bear the burden of feeding them.
In addition to four tigers, giraffes, antelopes and other similar animals, and eight hundred pairs of fighters and captives from Berber tribes.
There were Blemmyes (Who were living between Tripoli of the West and Chad), Ethiopians, the Arabs from Yemen, Indians, the people live in the middle of Asia, Irish people, Arab tribes, and Persians. All of them bring gifts.
Also, there were captives from forces that were fighting with the Germans from Goths, Alalaneen, Roxolans, Saracens, Franks, Sobeyeen, and Germans, which were captured.
Also, there were men who survived from death in Palmyra, the officials of the country, and some Egyptians.
Furthermore, there were ten women who were fighting while they were wearing clothes of men and who were captured within the Goths. He declared in public that they are belonging to Amazon Region in the North of Black Sea.
Also "Tetricus" was walking in the procession. He was wearing scarlet cloak, yellow armor, and expensive trousers. He was walking with his son, who was the emperor of Gaul (Areas extended to Aren, Alps, Mediterranean Sea, Pyrenees, and Atlantic Ocean).
Here is Zenobia wearing jewels and gold chains that were carried by others due to being heavy.
The golden crowns presented by all cities were carried high.
Then, the Romans themselves and celebrities of camps, armed knights, the entire army, and final the Senate, which were sad to see the other Sheikhs in this situation, attended the festival.
They arrived to the palace of Jupiter, the Greatest God of Romans, at nine in the morning.
They arrived late to the Place. In the subsequent days, the plays were performed in theaters, races in the circus, in addition to hunting trips of wild beasts, fights of wrestlers, and naval battles.
After end of the festival, Aurelian handed over Zenobia to the judge in Rome. He sent a letter about Zenobia, who was prisoned later, to the Senate and the Romans defending himself, as some people blamed him for making a victory festival for a woman considering her as a General. He said "Sheikhs, I have heard that men are blaming me for making a victory festival for Zenobia. In fact, the men who are blaming me now will thank me if they know what kind of woman she is. Moreover, if they know that her advice are wise and her plans and strict, and that she deals with soldiers in a tough manner and she becomes tough as necessary. Also, she was responsible for victory of "Udhayna" against the Persians, as after she was responsible for escape of Shabur, she marched to Al-Mada'in.
In addition, we afraid of the woman who inspired the people of the East and the Egyptians to the limit that did not make the Arabs in Yemen and the Arab tribes and Armenians oppose it.
I would not keep her alive if I did not know the valuable service that she provided to the Roman State, when she retained the royal power for herself and for her children.
Therefore, let those who are not satisfied with anything shut up. If they do not accept the act of making a victory festival for a woman, what they would say about "Gallienus" that Zenobia despised and ruled the empire well in his reign. Also, what they would say about "Calidus", the honorable leader who placed the burden of the royal power on her, because he was occupied with his battles with the Goths. However, she controlled the country with Insight and wisdom and guarded the eastern borders of the empire.
Opinions about the fate of Zenobia
There were many opinions about the fate of Zenobia. Zonaras, Byzantine chronicler, said in "The Twelfth Book" written in the Twelfth century of end of Zenobia "Some people say that she was brought to Rome and got married with one of the famous people there. Others say that she died on the road because she was sad about the change in her life, although Aurelian got married with one of her daughters, while the rest of her daughters got married with one of the most famous Roman men".
By this way, Palmyra lost its whole trade after this war. The matters became worse after skirmishes on the borders with Persia. The trade coming from Silk Route arrived at the Byzantine State via Armenia and Anatolia.